[A radical
meta-art system shooter] - [Narratives of the code] [nybble-engine-toolZ
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meta-art system shooter] - [Narratives of the code]
Mediapoiesis,
autopoietic
compiling and code-critique in the technological narrative
Narratives
of the code - A research
desideratum exemplified by network-poiesis
Margarete
Jahrmann
“The re-engineering of existing,
commercial systems (such as game engines) or their inversion and
subversion has
also increased, although this territory arguably remains
under-explored.
Considering the potential of the digital medium, there are still
relatively few
works that create open systems by allowing users a sophisticated
reconfiguration or rewriting of the system itself or by relying on
networked
communication processes in challenging ways.” (Prix Ars Electronica
2003,
Interactive Arts, jury statement) 1)
In the
context of
the given topic of Networked Narratives, the network
game and installation *nybble-engine-toolZ*
(by Margarete Jahrmann and Max Moswitzer, http://www.climax.at)
will provide an illustrative example for a
mediapoietic work. 2) In the following it becomes
clear, that this work is
not just interactive but even more so a media narrative made out of
codes,
network protocols and communication. But first we will have to clarify
the
immanent specifics of such a technological narrative. While
looking in
more detail at this practical example, it will be easier to define the
meaning
of mediapoiesis, especially as this term still has to be
further
developed.
*nybble-engine-toolZ*
- A radical meta-art system shooter and practical model of mediapoiesis
A so called
shooter defines an established
type of computer game which is based on the process of sighting or
detecting
and shooting an object. The project *nybble engine toolZ*
re-engineers
such an existing commercial system as a game engine sprinkled with
network
commands. Game engines are operating software for real-time
graphical
rendering, which takes place in predefined environments, although the
way of
rendering the image is depending on certain actions, events and
triggers. Often
it is also the basis for a multi-player environment and for a network
protocol.
A nybble is the unit of half a byte or four bits and thus the
basis of
every digital conversion. As the numeric equivalent of the binary code,
it
exemplifies the internal logic of a software, that converts codes and
protocols
on a server into various representations.
*nybble-engine-toolZ*
- as a radical
meta-art shooter, serves as a self-ironic
multi-player statement tool. The network suggested for the interactive
installation consists of players on site in the installation, actors on
a
remote site in the city and spectators connected to the running
nybble-engine
game server via the Internet. When shifting between these positions
participants become <spect-actors>, active spectators, changing
between
the interactive and the interpassive role of a player with code and a
writer of
code, between a visitor in an installation and an actor in a virtual
environment. E-mails can be sent into the nybble-game environment and
change
it. There are also outgoing mails to president@whitehouse.gov. We
applied the
newly coded game-features, as out and ingoing mails, sensible from a
<cyber-Nethical> point of view. The scientist and philosopher
Heinz von
Foerster introduced the term KybernEthik, (Foerster, Berlin
1993). He is
talking about a second order ethics, according to a second order
cybernetics,
which is following the observation of the observation as principle. In
intended
contrast to the violent aesthetics of the computer game, the project is
based
on anti-war e-mails, commissioned with each shot made with the game pad
in the
installation and the online network. So the toolz are usefull for the
lessons
in self defense, which the citicens of contemporary democratic
societies should
take to be able to resist against manipulation and control, as Noam
Chomsky
described it recently in his book Media Control, (Chomsky, New
York
2002). Each toolz-email is displayed in real-time as both ASCII text
and newly
generated visual object. Out of this visually coded environment, text
messages
are sent. This can also be commands from the running engine itself to
the
network. E-mails inside the engine trigger the environment of action-bots
(these are software player-robots with a minimal artificial
intelligence),
although one can also directly log in on the game-server. While moving
through
the environment, trace routes are started from the game to a number of
crucial
government servers. Network activities outside the engine are displayed
in the
game environment in real-time as texts and 3-D objects.
By
reversing the effects of a specific
action, such as jump’n run or shoot, the rules of the
game engine
are reversed: the unreal tournament becomes a situationist
détournement,
an inversion. Attack is collaboration, shoot is communication, and
playing
becomes the editing of code!
The
installation: an
interactive/interpassive group experiment
The
architecture of the installation room,
where the participants are able to take seat, is shaped like the 3-D
form of
the virtual environment. This form is a trace of the movements inside
the
network environment. We transfer this
data-form into the installation room, by making a 3D printout in real
size of
the virtual object. Following contemporary architect and theorist
Bernard
Cache’s example, we call these forms objectiles. In reference
to Bernard
Cache, Gilles Deleuze defines an ‘objectile’ as “a very modern
conception of
the technological object: it refers neither to the beginnings of the
industrial
era nor to the idea of the standard that still upheld a semblance of
essence
and imposed a law of constancy (…) but to our current state of things,
where
fluctuation of the norm replaces the permanence of a law; where the
object
assumes a place in a continuum by variation (…) the object here is
manneristic,
not essentializing: it becomes an event.” 3)
Inside the
virtual space each actionbot or
player’s avatar carries a data object instead of a weapon. As these
objects
represent command lines and processes from the game environment, they
also
appear as a part of the installation interface, as laser-sintered
<objectile>. In its pure form as code equivalent and as discourse
object
it is exhibited as a code hardcopy. This freeze frame functions
as the
art-coded interface to the data-world in the installation.
The
peer-to-peer software of the
installation converts network processes into three-dimensional abstract
movies
and projects these onto a 180-degree screen, such as experienced in an
interpassive cinematic situation. The network codes and commands are
generated
with the aid of game engines into audio-visual so called machinima
movies. Simultaneously they are playable command lines in the networked
game
environment.
The
participants in the experiment can,
however, also become active in the installation space. At a small
control desk
they see their individual view of the navigation, which presents a
subjective
perspective at variance with the server view on the screen. The players
use an
ordinary game pad to log onto the network of the installation and to
enter into
the shooter environment, where projectiles of data object(ile)s, action
bots as
well as other players are flying about. Each time a data object is hit,
network
processes are triggered, each time a shot is fired with the game-pad,
an
anti-war email is sent. There are two choices for the spectator: either
to
become a player who concentrates on the small Gameboy monitor and
successfully
navigates and influences what is happening on the big screen, or to be
the one
whose attention fluctuates and combines the different perspectives –
those of
man on the small screen and those of the server-machine on the big
surround
screen . If one concentrates on the personal view, it influences the
entire
picture being simultaneously generated and projected. Seeing this
simultaneous
view of one running application in different windows might motivate
viewers to
intervene in the communication. In the case that no one is taking part
in the
installation space the action bots and online players take control over
the
action.
Our
cognitive interest lies
in the rise of separate display
formats in man-machine perturbations on the level of group
interactions, which
are not predictable just by the programming. The applications’ volumes
form the
central topics, following Felix Guattari’s notion of the machinic,
but
recombined, according to arising contemporary modding
cultures (modding is a term that stands for modifications of
software/code
classes in game engines as well as individual modifications of
hardware). The
definition of an engine as an algorithmic machine is the discursive
starting
point. Software texts as game engines are reflected and the work
focuses on the
differentiations and theories of the machinic towards the
actual status
of the machine as an engine in coding-cultures. Machines and
engines are
here not considered as tools but as media, as modification material for
the
arts. In the interrelation of different media layers, the application
as part
of the complete engine becomes a tool run by action-bots, interpreted
as
non-linear software and by human players in mutual exchange. What
mainly
matters are the man-machine and machine-machine effects of
communication and
their circular and causal feedback mechanisms in the techno-social
system
environment: as broadcast messages inside the live generated and
visually coded
environment display real time network activities from outside the
engine, and
as commands can also be sent out of the running engine into the network
- the
same time a ping to a gov.server is started by pressing another game
pad button
- then the users construct their environment, collaborate with the play.
In such a
networked shooter group
experiment players take over the role of humans, action bots and
server-protocols themselves. A network application forms the
experimental set
up as a modification of an existing game engine, yet not a game
in the
common sense, although there are remaining references to game-culture
and
history. The artistic challenge of this work is represented in the
custom coded
engine as an algorithmic machine for real time rendering of user
activities but
even more so for audiovisual networking. Such a redefinition of game
engines
promises from our point of view the possibility of browser free
networks. In
the actual case the usually hermetic engine is opened up by integrating
the
layers of the network as material for its aesthetic surface. A new
hermetic
system is shaped then in the technological sense that such an engine
uses its
own proprietary network protocol. In the nybble-toolZ these
protocols
are merged with open code standards.
The technological
narrative
The main
inspiration derives from the
structure of the computer game application, but its initial narrative
is based
on the technological potential. A network protocol based on game
engines is
telling a story of optional networking as an immersive environment. It
can be
used on a console and it can be combined with so called real worlds
when it is
implemented on combinatory interfaces, which are superimposing
additional
information to the real life image through data goggles. This was
investigated
in an earlier experimental project based on a Quake version in
2002: 4)
The School of Computer and Information Sciences at the University of
South
Australia transferred the campus into an augmented reality map.
Players
are wearing a semitransparent data goggle while walking on the real
campus and
get additional information, or monsters, superimposed. The style of
game
navigation and interaction is completely maintained, also with
selfbuilt
shooting interfaces. While looking at this experimental application one
misses
any change of metaphors or surface language of the original shooter
game. The
actual change takes only place on the code level. In contrary the game
is
transferred out from the network onto a level between the technological
and the
real life reality.
When a game
engine is merged with open
codes and standards it can be a potential tool for system operating.
This was
implemented 1999 in a shooter version, where people were running around
in a
multi-user environment and shooting processes. It was based on a
version of Doom
as a tool for system administration. “As
I was
listening to Anil talk about demons spawning processes and sys-admins
killing
them, I thought, ‘What a great user interface!’ Imagine running around
with a
shotgun blowing away your demons and processes, never needing to type
‘kill -
9’ again. (…) I downloaded one of the many versions and added a
few
lines of code that would spawn a new soldier for each process, renew
the
process when it is wounded, and kill the process when it dies”. 5)
These kinds
of narratives are embedded in
an existing technology on one hand and game culture on the other hand.
Although
the mentioned applications are sticking to the syntax and images of the
language of shooter games, they are telling a kind of neutral story.
The
technological reality is made of the real live circumstances of
individuals
creating these software modifications, the network gamers. They are not
quitting the aesthetics or the terminology of game culture but are
providing a
different idea of interface culture. This is the second big narrative
shaping
up in the field of game inspired technologies: the techno-cultures
itself are
telling the stories and therefore underlining the significance of
computer
games as a cultural phenomenon. 6) So the basis for a networked
mediapoiesis
is both, the techno code and the cultural application of code.
These
particular types of networked
narratives produce its very own computer literacy. The player community
gains
interest, when the gamer clans are originating their own machine
movies, their
individual machinimas (as described above.). This means the
game users
become pro-active, they start to modify, to recombine. But here the
dispositive
raised by this term is that of a community, a culture, or a so-called
scene. It
is defined by the act of dealing with programmes, programme languages,
applications and codes. During the recent years a complete modding
scene
developed. It encompasses its own magazines, web pages, discussion
groups and a
range of minor media, a term that follows Felix Guattari's
conception of
art and new media towards heterogeneous machines, which are
obligatory
to link people together. New in this structure of subcultures is the
fact that
the applications itself are such minor media communication
environments. In
general modding then exemplifies the ongoing and ever
intensifying clash
over who will control popular culture. 7)
Autopoietic
compiling - pay
attention to the code behind the
screen!
Parts of
the following reflections on mediapoiesis
as a specific
codepoiesis that becomes visible while executed, I have published in
the jury
statement for Software Art at the Transmediale Berlin 2003,
in
cooperation with the artists Amy Alexander and David Rokeby. 8)
“Any piece
of computer
software exists on two levels. On the one hand, it exists as an
executing program
supporting some sort of activity or generating some sort of experience.
On the
other, it exists as a text in its own right, a subjective expression of
the
writer's ideas and an example of one person's struggle to give form and
function to an idea in the particular medium/language of executable
code. The
human reader has an immediate and direct relationship to the 'source
text' of a
poem or novel, rendering it into an imagined experience using their
comprehension of language, their memories and life-experiences. On the
other
hand, a computer program's text is generally hidden, interpreted by the
processor, operating system and hardware before being presented to the
audience. But the inaccessibility of the program's source code does not
make
the code-text itself culturally irrelevant. In the case of executable
computer
code, some of the interpretive activity is shifted away from the human
into the
machine/code system. This combination of human-written code and
human-designed
machine is a complicated expressive mechanism that cannot simply be
reduced to
a function of its surface effects. As poetry and literature can be
understood
as struggles with the mechanism of a particular language and the limits
of
language itself, software art on this reflexive level can be seen as a
struggle
with the mechanisms of a computer language and the acts of quantifying,
encoding and logical processing. This engagement is a central yet
deeply hidden
and under-examined activity in contemporary culture; its importance is
amplified
by its invisibility. The particular way that an executing algorithm
hooks into
its cultural context is key to the understanding of the work. When the
code
itself is very verbal rather than purely algorithmic, this verbal
content may
either clarify the concepts behind the work, or constitute an important
part of
the work itself.
A
conceptual framework
that allows one to discuss software related issues without descending
to
implementation specifics would be a valuable tool. But reading and
understanding the code text itself is not enough. Such a framework or
meta-language must not be merely an abstract representation of code
function
and code structure, but also a way of talking about the ways that
coding
actions ripple out through executing machinery to affect the social
context. An
algorithm may be a simple representation of a mathematical or logical
equation.
But even a simple and easily understood algorithm can be a provocative
agent in
the complex system of the world. Software defines processes, which
reflect and
transform the complex world that surrounds them. An algorithm can be
thought of
as a person's way of making sense out of data. Code transforms the
significance
of data, and the data that code is applied to changes the significance
of the
code. They form contexts for each other. Artists and corporations often
process
the same data through very different kinds of algorithms bringing
radically
different interpretations of the data. Choosing to put an algorithm
into play
in the world is an expressive decision that cannot and must not hide
behind the
apparent objectivity and "innocence" of the algorithm as an isolated
logical entity.”
So it gives
us control
on how to examine the texts of software at large, which normally hide
‘behind
the curtain’ of the interface, output and illusions of pure utility or
transparency, behind the fiction of 'objective' technology. Looking at
software
coding as a form of expressive text writing opens up another question:
Does an
examination of this form of writing offer new perspectives on other
forms of
text based representation? Software coding exists as one extreme
continuum of
text writing. Extreme cases often clarify middle positions. Virtually
all
writing involves processes of formulation, encoding and compression and
a
deferred but implicit process of interpretation. Software art, while
maintaining a consciousness of the interrelationship between the
underlying
code, the code's functional operation and the cultural ramifications of
the
code's execution, presents the opportunity to test new conceptional
models of
language, text and expression.
Code - text
- langue -
parole - font
To make a
code reflection
discursive and dialogical, a playable, networked narrative environment
has to
be introduced. When executed it is at first cryptic. When looking into
the
visual encryption and listening to the audible codes of the procedural
descriptions it soon can be decoded. As the observer, the user becomes
the
decoder, focussing on the idea that everything is formal text in a
software
environment. The classes and behaviours of an existing engine are
visually
transcoded. For this purpose the font serves as a surface. Yet it goes
beyond
the pure aesthetics of surfaces as it addresses the semiotics of formal
languages and their representation in the context of coding.
Re-using a game engine
discusses its medial qualities as a programme and as a distributed
network text.
Determination by text is its focal point. The text of the application
is coded
as formal language, but can be detected by the programmer, interpreted
by the
compiler and embodied by the running program through its spatial
appearance. In
the interface that the executed programme displays a new font can be
read. The
‘text’ of space and actors is coded in a generative font and
reintegrated into
the interface. Surface and code text merge. The formal coding of
programme
texts in logical and notational systems of programming languages is
mirrored in
the visualising of text in a new interface culture.
To a
certain degree of abstraction, it may
also be that trivial and non-trivial machines interact with one
another. As the
reference to problem orientation already indicates, coded art is not
developed
by way of analogy. This opens up the option of a functional equivalent
that is
generated in the reference to software objects and their implications
to a
dynamic, complex context. This is already achieved through its status
of being
an articulation in a communication context, where expectations always
make up
an important factor. These are expectations guided by norms and they
are, to a
certain extent, dependent on a factual event; in an art discourse, the
‘new
paradigm’ stands for a problem construction, to which further
constructions -
in other words, functional equivalents - are conjoined. Orientation to
function
tends with appropriate complexity to higher problem specification. This
applies
not only to the art system as a whole, with all its subsystems, which
are
structured through orientation to function, but also to the level of
art
practice, which articulates/focuses/reflects/queries these
system/environment
differences.
Its
functional equivalent relationship,
however, does not only refer to the source text. A certain theoretic
framing
lies in its final evolutionary stage, defining a meta-art system, that
serves
as a reflective endeavour for observations, in order to observe oneself
as a
second order observer formulated in code texts.
Mediapoiesis
is not just system immanent reflection. Although such works may start
in that way, they are contributing to and take place in the environment
of
other systems. So a mediapoietic aspect is defined. For example "txtz
ware" by Projekt Gnutenberg (Sebastian Lütgert, Florian Cramer,
Germany, http://textz.gnutenberg.net),
can be considered as a piece of software art, which reflects the
specifics of a
software causing reactions in the real world of legacy. The ‘programme’
of the
application is a political file sharing act, where neither copyright
nor
intellectual property is accepted. Because of a very explicit cultural
use of
software a social awareness arises. This effect is also reinforced
because
certain software conditions are exploited and reused: a php.txt is a
script
published under the GNU public license. The GNU Project was launched in
1984 to
develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software:
the GNU
system. GNU is a recursive acronym for ``GNU's Not Unix''; it is
pronounced
"guh-NEW. Therefore it can be modified and copied for free although its
content is not free at all.
For an applied
epistemology in the
discursive reflection of networks and the machinic as media,
that
generates also a surplus, we choose a self-referential view of the
relations
between codes, interfaces and cultures, which touches the borders of
systemics.
The analysis of scientific and philosophical thinking models of 2nd
order cybernetics linked to informatics and cultural theory, form the
background. 9) Further the term autopoiesis has to
be applied here,
following Humberto Maturana’s and Francisco Varela’s initial definition
of it,
as practical and generative aspects are becoming evident:
AUTO means “self” and refers to the autonomy
of self organising systems; and POIESIS - which shares the same Greek
root as
the word poetry - means ‘making’. 10) So autopoiesis
stands for self-making.
Consequently mediapoiesis stands for a self-making of media.
The
distinction between organisation and structure in this model is clear:
organisation is an abstract description of relationships and the
structure is
constituted by the actual relations between the physical components, as
the
embodiment of its organisation in different surfaces of media texts.
Since all
changes in the system take place within a basic circularity, Maturana
argued
that the components that specify the circular organisation must also be
produced
and maintained by it. Organisationally closed but energetically open,
these
systems are the environment for other systems. Although these thoughts
were
focusing on living systems, the main idea is close to the concept of
self-organisation in binary networks, observed as the spontaneous
emergence of
ordered patterns, with the initial state of the network as a randomly
structured organism. This for example happens when network systems are
introduced into the operationally closed environment of multi-player
environments. Additionally a not only self organising but also
continually self
referring networked narrative implements a meta-discourse on the used
codes and
languages on both sides, those of technological programming languages
and those
of cultural metaphors and the epistemological conditions of these
observations.
Additionally,
in this concept of codepoiesis
or more generally mediapoiesis, Niklas Luhmann’s argument on
autopoietic
theory (1984, Soziale Systeme) has to be considered, as it reflects
upon organismic,
psychological, and social levels of autopoiesis and therefore
points
towards the phenomenon of the social use of network technologies in
online communities,
clans and scenes.
The
rewriting of grammar of the used
languages proves to be further significant. Thinking of language
communities,
it seems helpful to take over the point of view of cultural theory. The
nature
and debate of the linguistic sign finds a correspondence in the
standards of
network protocols. When Ferdinand de Saussure speaks of the difference
of langue
and parole, he emphasises on the fact, that “la langue” is “the
social
product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary
conventions that
have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise
the
faculty”, 11) whereas ‘la parole’ is the execution. As both
have to go together,
we have to experiment on executed programmes and code lines inside the
networks
under consideration of the social conventions within these temporary
shared
communities. Secondly these conventions are then officially
standardised as so
called ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standards
for
network and transfer protocols or even for environment modelling
languages like
VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language), and they are becoming a new
matter
of community discussion and creation. While sticking to cultural theory
we
could draw parallels to the concept of a normative grammar. 12)
I would like to
refer here to the work of Antonio Gramsci (Normative Grammar, 1929-35),
a
political activist and theorist who emphasised the positive and even
necessary
aspect of certain forms of unity, as they may actually have an initial
function
to force liberation. If, as Gramsci argues, written normative grammar
always
presupposes a cultural tendency, and is thus always an act of national
cultural
politics, then also the written commercial and open standards of
protocols are
implicitly showing these cultural tendencies in the worldwide network
and they
are therefore a political act. 13)
The
relationship between poetic or
creative language, writing and coding, standard and normative protocols
is the
essential one coming up to the surface in code based networked
narratives. A
further linguistic model can finally be traced back to reflect these
categories
of environment programming languages. Roman Jakobson, another key
thinker in
cultural theory, refused to distinguish between different kinds of
texts and
brought the same mode of analysis to bear upon both everyday language
and
literary texts. In this structuralist theory of linguistics, functions
relate
to factors present in any communicative act, as there are sender,
receiver,
context, code, contact and message. The scheme of functions consists of
emotive, referential, poetic, phatic, connotative and meta-lingual
elements.
The given examples and related discussion are exemplifying, that these
elements
form a major part of the described techno-narrativity of
networked
communication. 14)
[nybble-engine-toolZ
home] - [A
radical meta-art system shooter] - [Narratives
of the code]
1
nybble-engine-toolZ got an
award
of distinction in interactive art at
the Prix ars
electronica 2003. http://www.aec.at/en/prix/updates/article.asp?iNewsID=309&iTypeID=6,
(15.07.03)
2
Margarete Jahrmann, Max Moswitzer (Austria):
"nybble-engine-toolZ", www.climax.at. nybble-engine-toolZ
was developed in cooperation with the V2_lab Rotterdam and a first
version was
installed at the exhibition "Metadata", at the Dutch Electronic Arts
Festival 03 in February 2003. In the game pad statement tool
installation
during the DEAF exhibition at Las Palmas in the harbour connected to
Showroom
Mama, a gallery in the centre of Rotterdam, a number of peace messages
and
pings were sent out.
http://deaf.v2.nl/deaf/03/archive/node/Text/show.py?nodenr=136459&domain=,
(15.07.03).
3 Deleuze,
Gilles, The Fold: Leibniz
and the Baroque, Minneapolis, 1992.
4
Gogolin, Heiko, „Augmented Reality“, in: DE:BUG, Nr. 64,
Oktober
2002. S. 33.
5 http://www.cs.unm.edu/~dlchao/flake/doom,
(18.07.03)
6
While the study of computer games and game culture is still a largely
undeveloped field, there is a significant body of research and critical
writing
emerging on the topic, in both academic and mainstream publications and
gaming
websites.
http://www.game-culture.com/about.html, (08.07.03).
7 “What
(most) game companies have
discovered is that people who buy computer games do not simply want to
play
those games, but they also want to use games as a platform for their
own
self-expression.”
http://brian.carnell.com/articles/2002/07/000023.html, (15.07.03)
8
http://www.transmediale.de/03, (15.07.03)
9 von
Foerster, Heinz, ed., Cybernetics
of Cybernetics. Sponsored by a grant from the Point Foundation to
the
Biological Computer Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, 1974.
A short reference to the informatics view: The programmpoiesis can be
interpreted as a practical theory. It can be characterised by polycontexturality,
the parallelity of one object in different contextures (transjunktion).
An
optional perspective in the reflection of programming languages and
codes
offers the idea of polycontextural logics. (Rudolf
Kaehr, 1996) http://www.loveparade.net/pcl/, (15.07.03).
This means
that two different possible answers are
valid and the Leibniz system of zeros and ones, true or not made
visible on a
reference foil, is no more valid.
10 Maturana,
Humberto R., Biology of Cognition, 1970. Reprinted in Maturana,
Humberto R. and
Francisco Varela, Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of
the
Living. Dordrecht, 1980. and Maturana, Humberto R. and Francisco J.
Varela, The
Tree of Knowledge. Boston and London 1988.
11 de
Saussure, Ferdinand. The Nature
of the Linguistic Sign
(1916), in: Burke, Crowley, Girvin, The Routledge Language and
Cultural
Theory Reader, Manchester 2000, page 22.
12 The
public source kernels of game
engines, the modifcation of engines and the spatial grammar of an
environment
are profoundly related. "Shape grammars are typically designed for a
specific application area... Several industry and academic groups have
collaborated
on the development of non-proprietary shape grammar standards. ...most
non-proprietary shape grammars are slow to be developed and adopted and
are
quickly outdated. Proprietary standards, in contrast, can be revised on
each
new release of the application software they support." http://www.sdsc.edu/DOCT/Publications/a6-4/2_store.htm#GrammarsToday,
(21.06.03)
13 Gramsci,
Antonio, Normative Grammar
(1925-35), in: Burke, Crowley, Girvin, The Routledge Language and
Cultural
Theory Reader, Manchester 2000, page 281.
14
Jacobson, R, Language in Literature,
ed. K. Pomorska
and S. Rudy, Cambridge, 1987.